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Lecture Objectives: Chapter 1, Part 1 1. Define sociology. Describe the 3 basic qualities of the sociological perspective. 2. Compare the sociological approach to interpreting social reality to psychological and anthropological perspectives. 3. Provide examples of the way in which social forces affect the everyday lives/behaviour of individuals. 4. Summarize Durkheim’s classic study of the social factors influencing suicide rates. 5. Identify situations that encourage people to “think sociologically.” 6. Identify 4 benefits of applying the sociological perspective to our everyday lives. 7. Summarize why it is important that sociology reflects a global perspective.
1. There are many approaches to the study of humanity; sociology is one of these; offers a unique perspective
2. Sociology: scientific study of human social activity (families, politics, religion, etc.) a) Is part of a family of other social sciences; based on rigorous procedures for gathering empirical information
b) Psychology: focuses on human behaviour of individuals (e.g., depression & suicide) i) Sociology: focuses on group behaviour; extent to which group membership (class, race, age) influences individual behaviour (e.g., depression & suicide) (1) Is concerned with how our place in society affects our individual experiences
c) Anthropology: studies similar questions but: i) Tends to study small, traditional societies (sociologists focus on modern, industrial societies) ii) Generally studies cultures as a whole (sociology studies smaller systems like groups, institutions within complex societies)
d) Example: use of handguns i) Psychology: what is the psychological impact on victims; who uses handguns ii) Anthropology: consider use of weapons across cultures as a symbol of power iii) Sociology: how membership in a particular category (e.g., socioeconomic status, gender) is related to use of handguns/weapons
3. Basic Qualities of the Sociological Perspective: a) Seeing the general in the particular: look for general social patterns in behaviour of particular individuals; emphasizes social forces that affect our lives (e.g., how members of a particular category behave in similar ways)
b) Seeing the strange in the familiar: encourages us to question the assumptions we make about society; focus on how society guides our thoughts/actions often without our awareness (e.g., why did you enroll in the Nursing program?); personal choices are discussed in relation to social forces (e.g., socioeconomic factors determine choice to med school, etc.)
c) Seeing individuality in social context: tend to emphasize personal responsibility/choice for actions; downplay idea that some aspects of life are determined and patterned; emphasizes that choices are made in a context of social forces i) E.g., Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide in later part of 19th century; (1) Found that certain social categories in Europe (men, the poor, wealthy, unmarried) had higher suicide rates than others (2) Concluded that those who are weakly integrated into social groups are more at risk (3) Thus, suicide rates reveal general patterns, not just individual choice; impersonal forces are related to personal behaviour; these social forces are external to individual and constrain individual behaviour
4. Sociologist C. Wright Mills (1959) described sociological reasoning as the “sociological imagination”: the ability to see relationship between individual experiences and the larger society/the social context a) Allows for a distinction between:
i) Personal troubles: private problems of individuals that must be solved by the individual in their social settings
ii) Public issues: matters beyond individual’s control that are caused by problems at a societal level b) Helps us put seemingly personal troubles (victim of sexual assault) into larger social context & relate it to public issues (culturally transmitted assumptions that women are “asking for it” if they dress a certain way; men should be physically assertive)
c) Situations that stimulate sociological thinking include: i) Encountering different cultures/people: start to think about why others do what they do ii) Social marginality iii) Social disruption
5. When you start thinking this way, you begin thinking “globally:” consider the larger world and our society’s place in it a) Three categories of nations: i) High-income countries: industrialized, relatively wealthy ii) Middle-income countries: limited industrialization; moderate to low personal income iii) Low-income countries: little industrialization, severe poverty is norm
b) How does living in Canada affect your personal decisions/choices? i) Reminder: many achievements we attribute to our own personal abilities are also products of the privileged position we hold in a worldwide system
6. General Benefits of the Sociological Perspective: a) Challenges our assumptions: e.g., autonomous individuals; praise the successful b) Consider both opportunities & constraints that social factors place on behaviours/achievements c) Empowers us to be active participants in society: develops understanding of how society operates
7. What might be some of the advantages of the sociological perspective for one in health care profession? a) Differential distribution of illness across certain categories (socioeconomic status, etc.) b) How social processes affect health care system (interaction between nurse & physician) c) Effects of aging population on health care system d) Membership of culture & how it affects one’s interaction with health care system
8. Application….”After the Montreal Massacre.”
Study Objectives: Chapter 1, Part 2: 1. Summarize the 3 historical changes in European society that immediately preceded and contributed to the development of the sociological perspective. 2. What was the key difference between the interests of early philosophers and early sociologists when it came to viewing society? 3. Summarize Comte’s 3-stage view of the historical developments that resulted in sociology. What is positivism? Distinguish between social statics and social dynamics. 4. Be familiar with the main assumptions of each of the 3 principle theoretical paradigms in sociology. Be able to distinguish between views about society using each of the paradigms. 5. Distinguish between manifest & latent functions, and social dysfunctions. 6. Describe the basic elements of science (e.g., theory, hypothesis, etc.) & how they are used in sociological investigation. Identify advantages of a scientific approach to studying society. 7. Know why sociologists often must operationalize the variables they study. 8. Understand and differentiate between the concepts of reliability and validity. 9. Distinguish between independent and dependent variables. Be able to identify each in a research project. 10. Understand the distinction between cause, effect, and correlation. What research method allows for the determination of cause & effect relationships? 11. Explain Weber’s view regarding the desirability of objectivity. Distinguish between interpretive & critical sociology. 12. Identify 5 ways in which gender can influence sociological research. 13. Summarize 4 major methods by which sociologists conduct research and the primary strengths & weaknesses of each method. What are “hard-to-reach” populations & how can they be studied?
The Origins of Sociology August Comte coined the term sociology in 1838.
Science & Sociology · Early social thought: the imaginary “ideal” rather than on the analysis of what society was really like. · Sociology emerged as focus was given to understanding how society actually operates and its impact on individuals.
Auguste Comte
1. theological stage: though was guided by religion 2. metaphysical stage: a transitional phase; society viewed as the product of natural (vs supernatural) forces 3. scientific (positive) stage – positivism: the path to understanding based on science
Social Change & Sociology Three basic interrelated changes/social trends fostered the emergence of the sociological perspective: 1. Industrial technology: the growth of a factory-based industrial economy/decline of agriculture & handmade products. 2. Urban growth: the emergence of great cities/increasing proportion of the population living in cities vs rural areas in Europe 3. Political change: including a rising concern with individual liberty and rights.
Comte divided his new discipline into 2 parts: 1. Social statics: how society is held together; forces for social order/stability 2. Social dynamics: how society changes; forces for conflict & change
Sociological Theory A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. · Theories are based on theoretical paradigms: sets of assumptions that guide thinking & research. o There are 3 major sociological paradigms. 1. Structural-functional paradigm: is a framework for building sociological theory based on the assumption that society is a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability. a. asserts that society is composed of social structures (relatively stable patterns of social behaviour) b. each social structure has social functions or consequences for the operation of society as a whole c. Robert Merton introduced 3 concepts related to functions: 1. manifest functions: the recognized and intended social consequences of any social pattern 2. latent functions: largely unrecognized and unintended consequences 3. social dysfunctions: undesirable consequences of a social pattern for societal operation o Critical evaluation: § It minimizes the importance of social change § It overlooks divisions based on class, race, ethnicity, and gender
2. The social-conflict paradigm: is a framework for building sociological theory based on the assumption that society is characterized by inequalities and conflicts that generate social change. a. Critical evaluation: 1. it ignores social unity based on interdependence and shared values 2. because it is explicitly political, it abandons the goal of scientific objectivity 3. like the structural-functional paradigm, it envisions society in terms of broad abstractions
3. Symbolic-interaction paradigm: is a theoretical framework based on assumption that society is the product of everyday interactions between individuals. a. the structural-functional and social-conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation, meaning that they focus on broad social structures that characterize society as a whole. b. Symbolic-interactionism, however, has a micro-level orientation: it focuses on patterns of social interaction in specific settings. Sees people as interacting in terms of shared symbols and meanings. o Critical evaluation: attempts to explain more clearly how individuals actually/personally experience society but it’s micro-level orientation sometimes results in the error of ignoring the influence of larger social structures
Scientific Sociology 1. Science: a logical system that derives knowledge from direct, systematic observation. a) Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence: information we can verify using our sences. b) Deductive versus inductive science 2. Research Methods: strategies for systematically carrying out research; primary methods used in sociology: a) The Experiment: Testing an Hypothesis i) Experiments are used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships; highly controlled conditions. (1) Usually conducted in laboratories. This type of research is usually explanatory. Experiments are typically designed to test a specific hypothesis: an unverified statement of a relationship between two or more variables. Cause and effect relationships among variables in which one variable (independent variable = the variable that causes the change) causes a change or effect in another variable (dependent variable = the variable that changes). (2) The ideal experiment involves 3 steps leading to the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis: (a) Measurement of the dependent variable (b) Exposure to the independent variable (for the experimental group vs control group) (c) Measurement of the dependent variable again (d) This requires that researchers operationalize variables, which means to specify exactly what is to be measured. (e) Strengths & limitations b) The Survey: Asking Questions: A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview. It is the most widely used of the research methods. Is usually descriptive vs explanatory. i) Surveys are directed at populations, the people about whom a researcher seeks knowledge. ii) Usually, we study a sample: a relatively small number of cases selected to represent an entire population. iii) Two general techniques are used for asking and recording questions. (1) Questionnaire: series of written questions or items to which subjects respond; two basic types of questions; open-ended or closed-ended question formats; most surveys are self-administered (2) Interview: series of questions/items administered personally to the respondent by the researcher; has more depth than previous, but takes extra time, money, and can influence subjects’ responses
iv) Often interested in the correlation or relationship between 2 (or more) variables from survey (1) While variables may be correlated, they may not involve a cause and effect relationship. (a) A spurious correlation refers to a “false” or indirect link between two or more variables where no cause and effect exists; the association is caused by a third variable
c) Participant Observation: In the Field: method in which researcher systematically observes people while joining in their routine activities. i) Is descriptive and often exploratory. ii) Is normally qualitative research, based on subjective impressions.
d) Existing Sources: The Second Time Around: this type of research involves the independent analysis of data originally collected by others.
The limitations of scientific sociology. 1. human behaviour is too complex to allow sociologists to predict any individual’s actions precisely 2. because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the behaviour being studied 3. social patterns change constantly; what is true in one time or place may not hold in another 4. because sociologists are part of the social world they study, objectivity in social research is especially difficult.
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