Multiple Methods of Assessment
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Multiple Methods of Assessment |
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A LEARNING TASK A learning task is a way to structure dialogue. It is an OPEN QUESTION put to members of a small group, who have been given all the resources they need to respond. A learning task is a way of ensuring engagement of learners with new content. Structuring dialogue by setting useful tasks is one way to effective teaching. We need to transform teaching into learning by being faithful to the learning tasks we design. In this design, teaching and learning are integrated and the learning task is the overall design, incorporating the lecture or input along with practice. ASSUMPTIONS 1. Learners arrive with the capacity to do the work involved in learning. 2. Learners learn when they are actively engaged with the content. 3. New content can be presented through a learning task. 4. Learning tasks promote accountability by creating a learning-centered dialogue. LEARNING, TRANSFER, IMPACT The three aspects of an educational session that must be evaluated: 1. the learning that occurs during it 2. the transfer [use of new skills, knowledge, and attitudes in a workplace setting 3. the impact [the change in the organization's approach brought about through learning and transfer]. The accountability of teaching can be measured by examining all three: learning, transfer, and impact. THE FOUR LEARNING TASKS Any effective learning design needs four task components [the four I's]: [1] A learning task that connects learners with what they already know and with their unique context [inductive work, related to life]. Name one thing you have learned that you use daily in your work or in your life. Tell where you learned that concept or skill. Your use of that skill is an example of transfer. [2] A learning task that invites the participants to examine new input [concepts, skills, or attitudes] - the content of the course. Read the following description of three orientation to teaching. As you read, highlight key distinctions. In groups of four, compare your distinctions and formulate a group definition for each, a definition that highlights the differences among the three orientations. [3] A learning task that gets learners to do something directly with that new content, somehow implementing it [implementation task]. In pairs, decide how you can use this knowledge in your teaching. [4] A learning task that integrates this new learning into your life. How can you integrate this new knowledge/skill into your regular teaching approach? 1. INDUCTIVE TASKS: They invite learners to clarify where they are, at present, in terms of new content; where they begin their study; and what their present conception of the topic includes. Inductive tasks can use the verbs describe, tell the story of, define, sketch, show, name, etc. Inductive tasks begin with the lives and experiences of the learners. It is an open question, assuming capacity to say or decide what the question requests. Comparison is often used in such open questions. An inductive task sets the stage for learning by sharpening the perception of the learner. It tells the learner not only what s/he has to learn but also what the person perceives s/he already knows. Sometimes this is a rude awakening, sometimes a corroborating experience. The shared results of such reflection offer information about learners to a discerning teacher, as well as information about the discerning teacher to the learners. Then the dialogue begins. Sometimes an inductive learning task can be used as a warm-up in a program. A warm-up is always a learning task; it is never a peripheral or slight "exercise." If all knowing is incremental, and new KSAs are based on what has gone before, we honor the experience and perception of the learners. Their prior knowledge is sacred content, idiosyncratic, unique, and utterly determined by sociopolitical and economic context. We honor it as true knowing, not as the end but as the beginning of new knowing. In most inductive tasks, the content of a learner's perception is the substance of the task. Our inductive work aims to connect new knowing with old, and prior knowledge with new content. When learners do a well-designed inductive task, they are connecting to their lifelong experience of the new content they are learning. They can then self-motivate to the struggle that is involved in learning the new content. The word motivation comes from the Latin word for moving. In the physics of education, we know that one person cannot move another; one moves only oneself. The only motivation that is not dominating is self-motivation. Imagine the self-motivation of learners who have clarified not only what the new learning is about but also what they perceive it can do to enhance their lives.
2. INPUT TASKS: Input tasks invite the learner to grapple directly with new content. In an input task, the new content [KSA] is presented, the challenge is set, and the gauntlet is thrown: do something with this in order to learn it. Input tasks involve presenting substantive concepts, data, skill sets, and attitudes for examination, comparison, reflection, practice, editing, rearranging, and reconstructing. Presenting new content is done within the framework of a learning task. Input tasks differ from inductive tasks in that the new material is met head on. The design challenge is not to present this new material as static fact but as an integral part of the learning task, for learners to work over, struggle with, contest, and actually recreate to fit their context. Here, we get "constructed knowledge" as the result of a learner struggling with knowledge until it is one's own, until the concepts, skills, or attitudes learned begin to look like the learner's, take his/her shape. In a sense, the epistemology of dialogue invites us to recreate what we learn so that it fits our world. This is not "received knowing" where the KSAs are accepted passively and repeated in the life of the learner. Learning from a dialogue perspective is viewed as social construction of personal knowledge, involving a conjunction of the rational and the emotional. "Dialogic" teachers are concerned with the "constant dialectic interplay" between '... how learners construe [or interpret] events and ideas and how they construct [build or assemble] structures of meaning." The dialogic teaching perspective aims at guiding learners to construct deep understanding; to develop the thought characteristic typical of a skilled practitioner in the field of study; and to act from reflection, instead of memorizing and repeating facts and theories "transferred" to them or, worse, "downloaded" onto them. The dialogic pillars of respect and safety imply "that the integrity of each person is valued in ways that welcome the worth and expression of one's true self without fear of threat or blame. In such an atmosphere, people know that they are respected because they feel safe, capable, and accepted. Connectedness entails an awareness that one is cared for and one cares for others in the learning group. Students are capable of meaningful learning when their current views are respected and they are assured of the appropriate degree of safety and opportunity to explore. Relaxed alertness is a state of mind when students experience low threat and a pervasive sense of well-being in combination with moderate to high challenge. Learners can learn how to learn by working on input tasks that challenge them and respect their culture and context. All valid knowing is idiosyncratic, personal, and culturally specific. 3. IMPLEMENTATION TASKS The third type of learning task we use is an implementation task. This invites the learners to use the new KSAs in the learning environment, immediately. They implement them in the workshop, class, or session. This is done to get feedback on the learner's interpretation of the content, and also to offer the learner opportunity to practice. There should be at least one implementation learning task for every input learning task. Examples: As you read over this section on assumptions, consider what the opposite of each assumption involves. Read over each of the four assumptions. Describe for yourself what each might mean in your situation. Examine this section on defining a learning task. What would you add to the definition? These are all implementation tasks. An implementation task offers opportunity to review and integrate concepts, practice skills, and examine and practice new attitudes within the session, course, or class. The implementation task is an opportunity for assessment. have they got it? Iteration does not mean repetition, which can be tedious. Interpret iteration as a challenge to say and use the central concepts of a course hundreds of times, always differently. The aesthetics of designing and leading effective learning tasks demands creative iteration. Example: Make a decision to set up your own temporary account using one of the providers. Follow the setup steps. What are your questions? Send me an e-mail at my address. delete, or file, the e-mail you sent me. What are your questions? These are implementation tasks, practicing and reinforcing, within the class, a skill being learned. Once they have done this learning task and gotten feedback on their performance and responses to their questions, learners know what they know.
INTEGRATION TASKS The final type of learning task is an integration task, where learners are invited to apply what they have learned to their life and work. This integration may be through a projection task that invites learners to imagine what integrating the new learning accomplishes in their workplace or life. It may be a learning task to be accomplished after the course or session, with a reporting element so that feedback can be offered. In a program on teaching the design of adult learning, learners are invited to send their designs to the presenters for review and feedback. They are designing using what they learned in the weeklong course is the integration task. Integration tasks examine transfer, which is the use of new KSAs in the workplace or in life. If you do not structure integration tasks in a course or workshop session, it is less likely that the transfer will be explicit and intentional. Offering feedback on such tasks ensures not only that they are accomplished but also that the skills are reinforced at the same time. It is an ongoing opportunity for assessment, without being a testing task. Integration learning tasks look to the future and often are designed to take place in the future. That is why it is vital to build a feedback mechanism into such learning tasks.
ASSESSMENT TASKS Think of assessment not as something that takes place after learning but as a process that should take place continuously during teaching because one uses assessment to monitor student understanding and progress. Learning tasks are also assessment tasks. When the teacher invites the responses from the groups after engaging with the learning tasks, one can immediately gather whether students understand, and so can the students! Learning tasks thus enable continuous assessment. LEARNING TASKS ARE SIMULTANEOUSLY ASSESSMENT TASKS!
TOUGH VERBS FOR TASKS Demand considerable action, that challenge a learner to stretch and grow: design, edit, decide, select, write, distinguish, illustrate, organize, solve, resolve, realign. They do not allow pedantic play or abstract meandering. PRODUCTIVE VERBS produce for your learners: list, design, compose, write, prepare, reorganize, select, develop, diagram, illustrate, etc. RESPECTFUL VERBS verbs that fit the who, the audience. COGNITIVE VERBS select, define, identify, list, name, state, compare, distinguish, contrast, read, demonstrate, relate, group, estimate, reflect, solve, employ, complete, classify, apply, illustrate, synthesize, analyze, design, edit, add, delete, examine, organize, change, develop, review, diagnose, remediate AFFECTIVE VERBS revise, edit, share, respond to, approve, put in priority order, acclaim, brag, applaud, assist, protest, agree, change, debate, support, deny, comply with, control, listen to, accept, celebrate, reframe, choose, value, prefer, enjoy, rank, resist, evaluate, notice, relate to PSYCHOMOTOR VERBS design, operate, set up, practice, organize, exhibit, review, recite, play, diagram, draw, compose, realign, affix, put, take, write, prepare, dramatize, build, choose, manipulate, redesign, rearrange, employ VERBS CATEGORIZED BY MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE verbal: report, paraphrase, write, joke, create, label, recite, listen, list, retell visual: design a story, paint, draw, observe, illustrate, diagram, depict, show logical: reason, collect, record, analyze, graph, compare, contrast, rank, evaluate, sort musical: sing, listen, compose, audiotape, improvise, select music, critique music interpersonal: discuss, respond, dialogue, report, survey, question, paraphrase, clarify, affirm intrapersonal: journal, intuit, reflect, log, mediate, study, rehearse, self-assemble, express bodily: dance, sculpt, perform, prepare, construct, act, role-play, dramatize, pantomime, sort naturalist: relate, discover, uncover, observe, dig, plant, design, compare, display
CIPP: Context, Input, Process, Product] The CIPP concept is a useful workshop designer concept. It as first proposed as as a model for four basic areas of programmatic decisions; it identifies key aspects of programs that should be considered in relation to each other. CONTEXT: This relates to the who, why, when, and where of the seven steps of planning. The verbs you choose are designed to relate gracefully to the context. The verb must fit the context. The situation [why] is considered so as to select verbs for the learning tasks that are immediate to the situation. When and where control the kinds of verb you can use in terms of time frame and site. INPUT: In the CIPP model, input refers to the resources needed to teach. It relates to both the content [what] and the achievement-based objectives [what for]. The achievement-based objectives [what for] are what the learners do with the content [what], tough, productive, respectful verbs come in here. By the end of this session, all participants will have identified and used all the icons on the main screen of PowerPoint. Goals are general, using such broad and general verbs as learn, understand, enhance, improve. Achievement based outcomes must sparkle with specificity, since they lead directly to a set of learning tasks. PROCESS: Process in the CIPP model relates to the learning task, which includes sharing and evaluating the products from the learning task. It is, in fact, the how of the seven steps of learning. PRODUCT: The product of an effective learning task demonstrates the learning and shows to teacher and learners alike all that has been achieved and learned. They know that they know when they can point to the practical, useful products of their learning tasks. A thesis or dissertation is a product of graduate study that proves to an individual and to the world that s/he is indeed a master of the discipline. A portfolio of self-designed recipes using the principles of nutrition for health is a product that enables a learner to say s/he knows how to design meals for a healthy family. If you design an effective learning session, in which the seven elements of learners, situation, time, site, content, outcomes, and learning tasks fit well together, you can be assured of accountable learning. That is, learners achieve those outcomes by doing learning tasks that teach the content in such a way that they can say, "We know that we know." The verb is indeed the thing! CHECKLIST OF PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES SKILLS FOR LEADING LEARNING TASKS Every time I design and teach, I make sure that I THREE LEVELS OF QUESTIONS Level One: Epistemological Questions Epistemological Questions deal with those principles and practices at a level of transcendence that applies to all educational events. In any culture or with any group, the teacher must prepare the content, engage the learners, put the material into an appropriate sequence, design for reinforcement, and allow adequate time for the content to be worked through. The checklist reflects those principles and practices. Level Two: Categorical Questions Categorical questions address the differences involved in working with diverse categories of learners. Depending on the program, it should be clear that learning tasks appropriate for one group might not be appropriate for a different group. Level Three: Personal Questions Learning styles are idiosyncratic and personal. We cannot overlook any of the Level One and Level Two questions. Our concern for level-two [categorical] or level-three [personal] issues cannot preclude concern for basic principles of learning. If epistemological phenomena are disregarded, we pay the price in diminished learning. Here are examples of the questions at the three levels?
•This you man clearly leans best if material is presented visually. How can we make printed materials in this course less text-based? [3] •The learning tasks in this program are all cognitive. How can we get more affective and psychomotor tasks into the mix? [1] •The program is made up entirely of lectures. How can we put engaging learning tasks into it? [1] If educational programs are effective with diverse groups, it is likely that the epistemological questions were seriously considered first, and then categorical and personal issues were addressed. SKILLS FOR LEADING LEARNING TASKS Every time I design and teach, I make sure that I THREE LEVELS OF QUESTIONS Level One: Epistemological Questions Epistemological Questions deal with those principles and practices at a level of transcendence that applies to all educational events. In any culture or with any group, the teacher must prepare the content, engage the learners, put the material into an appropriate sequence, design for reinforcement, and allow adequate time for the content to be worked through. The checklist reflects those principles and practices. Level Two: Categorical Questions Categorical questions address the differences involved in working with diverse categories of learners. Depending on the program, it should be clear that learning tasks appropriate for one group might not be appropriate for a different group. Level Three: Personal Questions Learning styles are idiosyncratic and personal. We cannot overlook any of the Level One and Level Two questions. Our concern for level-two [categorical] or level-three [personal] issues cannot preclude concern for basic principles of learning. If epistemological phenomena are disregarded, we pay the price in diminished learning. Here are examples of the questions at the three levels? If educational programs are effective with diverse groups, it is likely that the epistemological questions were seriously considered first, and then categorical and personal issues were addressed. with in learning tasks. Substantive content is the heart of learning tasks. 20. The Four I's are a useful matrix for designing any educational session using learning tasks. Inductive work, input, implementation, and integration offer a useful sequence of learning tasks.
TECHNICAL GUIDE FOR DESIGNING & USING LEARNING TASKS Learning Task A learning task is an open question put to a small group of people who have all the resources they need to respond. 1. Use open questions in designing learning tasks. 2. Use tough, quantitative, productive verbs. 3. Favor implied open questions, such as, "Name the best ..." or "Describe ..." or "Design." 4. Recognize a closed question and its implica- tions. Time, Time, and Time 1. Set a time short enough to keep energy up, but long enough for learning to take place. 2. In a group setting, invite feedback on the time frame ["Where are you now?"] 3. Set end times [We'll share our product at 3:00]. 4. Be flexible [In 5 more minutes, we'll share ...]. 5. Do not put times on all the tasks; use a large time framework. Set Learning Tasks Clearly 1. Read the task as it is in the program. 2. Ask, "Is the task clear?" 3. When invited, respond to questions for clarifica- tion, and then leave; the learners do the task. 4. Model the task when necessary, but be aware that such modeling narrows their choices. 5. Refuse to use such phrases as "I want you to ..." or "I will give you more time." Affirm Their Responses 1. Lavish affirmation creates access to energy; it takes energy to learn. 2. Affirm their effort, if not their product. 3. Affirmation is always authentic. 4. There is no such thing as too much affirmation in a learning situation. Use Visuals and Audio Support 1. You cannot write too large on a chart. 2. Don't write on a chart anything you will not use. 3. Don't do anything that learners themselves can do. 4. For colors, choose black, brown, dark blue, dark green, or purple -- never pink or yellow. Lectures Lectures are folded into a learning task. 1. Don't tell what you can ask, and don't ask if you know the answer; tell, in dialogue. 2. Ask yourself, "Whose voice do I hear in the learning situation?" 3. Listen to learners who take time to think before they speak [introverts]. 4. Small-group work is always shared in the large group, even if there's only time for a sample. 5. Set the learning task before the lecture [input], or video, or audio, or reading, begins. 6. Invite clarifying questions prior to implementa- tion work. 7. Lectures also need to reflect the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects of learning. Creativity Creative learning tasks develop creativity. 1. Go for it! Use creative and imaginative learning tasks where appropriate. Break the boundaries. 2. Music, art, dance, drawings, food, sculpture ... what can you use in your learning task? 3. In this approach, the only unforgivable sin is to trivialize. 4. There are no "little warm-ups." A warm-up is a learning task at the beginning of a set. 5. Every learning task needs some cognitive, some affective, and some psychomotor work. Leading Learning Tasks 1. Sit still, keep quiet, and pay attention. 2. Set the task, set the time. 3. When learners are sharing; paraphrase, echo, and affirm. 4. Connect one group's learning with another's. 5. Tell what you are learning in the process. The Program 1. Stick to the program. 2. Describe the whole program at the beginning of a session. 3. No program needs defending. 4. Change the program only after conferring with colleagues. 5. Let learners know where they are on the whole journey. Resistance 1. Welcome resistance that shows learners are conscious of tough tasks. 2. Sometimes it's a good idea to talk to a resistant individual alone. 3. Stick to the program. 4. Work on; resistance is best met by successful learning. 5. Offer your services as a resource, not as a helper; don't do anything for a learner that s/he can do. Preparation 1. Devote three hours of preparation to every hour of learning. 2. A dry run or rehearsal of all tasks is necessary. 3. Who's doing what? Be sure you know who in your teaching team has what responsibility. 4. Check all equipment -- three times! 5. Read the learning task as it is written; do not paraphrase. 6. Check the room before the course [table arrangements, easels, pens, lighting]. 7. Be there at least one hour prior to the starting time. Documentation 1. Every session is documented: the content, outcomes, learning tasks, and products. 2. A record of the session is made, dated, and delivered to the client of the learners. 3. Keep all documentation for three years, filed by client or group served. 4. For your own purposes, a learning session that is not documented did not take place. Titles 1. Every course, session, and workshop has a title. 2. Every learning task has a title, such as, "Verdi Learning Task 1," or "Who Where When." 3. The document or report bears the same title as the course.
Capacity building links knowledge and skills to action by building capabilities [knowing that and knowing how] and capacities [praxis].
Planning for Learning Tasks – 8 Questions
WHO? invites a profile of the participants and number expected. A profile implies that the facilitator needs to find out as much as possible about the participants, prior to the learning task, including the type and level of prior knowledge they may bring to the task. WHY? tells one about the situation that calls for or has produced the need for the learning task. "The participants need …." WHAT? determines the content of the learning task: the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be developed or facilitated. HOW? produces the structure for the learning task or program and the materials to be used. WHEN? established the time frame for the task. WHERE? determines the site for the learning task and the opportunities it affords for various types of learning. WHAT FOR? determines what will be the achievement-oriented outcomes for the learning task. Achievement outcomes are stated in the form: "By the end of the learning tasks, learners will have to …." Verbs are used that can be quantified, verified, and completed – and tell what learners will be able to do by the end of the session. WHAT EFFECTS? determines what effects you expect the learning task to generate: learning – knowledge & skills acquired; transfer – capacity to use this learning in new situations beyond the task; impact – measurable changes in the organization as a result of new learning; transformation – birth of a new conceptual framework and orientation to the world.
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