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Measurements of some of the soil properties such as permeability, compressibility, strength and etcetera sometimes can be difficult, time consuming and expensive to obtain. In certain engineering projects, due to budget, site and other constraints, engineers and technologists are unable to carry out detailed and therefore more costly site investigations. Index properties and soil classifications provide engineers and technologists the qualitative measurements of the soil properties
Languages are required in geotechnical area. Actually, it is true in any engineering field. By means of the language(s), the knowledge and experience of a person who is involved in geotechnical area can be conveyed to others in a brief and concise manner, without the necessity of entering into lengthy and detailed descriptions.
For example, when we talk about clay, we can visualize the material we are dealing with has a very small particle size and a very large surface area. The particle size is less than 0.002 mm in size, and could be cohesive.
The above captioned reasons lead to the development of soil sorting or classification. Systematic soil sorting is also known as soil classification. Soil classifications based on certain soil physical properties and similar soil behaviours have been found very helpful by different organizations in solving engineering problems.
The classification systems are empirical in nature (i.e. experience based). Most of the systems were developed to serve a specific type of engineering need. The systems used commonly by engineers are the Unified Soil Classification System and the AASTHO System. Those properties that help to define a soil's engineering properties and are used for classification are called index properties. The tests necessary to determine index properties are classification tests.
It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be comprehensive (covering all but the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret) and yet relatively concise. It is important to distinguish between description and classification:
Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.
Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having
similar characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for
engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability,
stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.
Description and classification
Soils consist of grains
(mineral grains, rock fragments, etc.) with water and air in the voids between grains. The
water and air contents are readily changed by changes in conditions and location: soils
can be perfectly dry (have no water content) or be fully saturated (have no air content)
or be partly saturated (with both air and water present). Although the size and shape of
the solid (granular) content rarely changes at a given point, they can vary
considerably from point to point.
First of all, consider soil as a engineering material - it is not a coherent solid
material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate material. It is important to
understand the significance of particle size, shape and composition, and of a soil's
internal structure or fabric.
Basic characteristics of soils
The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it represents the products of past surface processes. To a pedologist it represents currently occurring physical and chemical processes. To an engineer it is a material that can be:
built on: foundations to buildings, bridges.
built in: tunnels, culverts, basements.
built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams.
supported: retaining walls, quays.
Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different purposes. Engineers' descriptions give engineering terms that will convey some sense of a soil's current state and probable susceptibility to future changes (e.g. in loading, drainage, structure, surface level).
Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength,
stiffness, permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the
current stress, the water content and unit weight.
Basic characteristics of soils
The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a controlling dimension of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm (2mm). Some clays contain particles less than 1 mm in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water due solely to gravity.
In theBritish Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil
Type groups according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium and fine
sub-groups:
Very coarse |
BOULDERS | > 200 mm | |
| COBBLES | 60 - 200 mm | ||
Coarse |
G |
coarse | 20 - 60 mm |
| medium | 6 - 20 mm | ||
| fine | 2 - 6 mm | ||
S |
coarse | 0.6 - 2.0 mm | |
| medium | 0.2 - 0.6 mm | ||
| fine | 0.06 - 0.2 mm | ||
Fine |
M |
coarse | 0.02 - 0.06 mm |
| medium | 0.006 - 0.02 mm | ||
| fine | 0.002 - 0.006 mm | ||
C CLAY |
< 0.002 mm | ||
Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size identification in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following:
SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.
SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots.
CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be
scraped or washed off hands and boots.
Basic characteristics of soils
The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS:
SANDS include gravelly sands and gravel-sands. Sand grains are generally broken rock particles that have been formed by physical weathering, or they are the resistant components of rocks broken down by chemical weathering. Sand grains generally have a rotund shape.
CLAYS include silty clays and clay-silts; there are few pure silts (e.g. areas formed by windblown Löess). Clay grains are usually the product of chemical weathering or rocks and soils. Clay particles have a flaky shape.
There are major differences in engineering behaviour between SANDS and CLAYS (e.g. in
permeability, compressibility, shrinking/swelling potential). The shape and size of the
soil grains has an important bearing on these differences.
SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and larger) have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the amount of wear during transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in manufactured aggregates. They have a relatively low specific surface (surface area).
Click on
a link below to see the shape
Rounded:
Water- or air-worn; transported sediments
Irregular:
Irregular shape with round edges; glacial sediments (sometimes sub-divided into
'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular')
Angular:
Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits
Flaky:
Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays
Elongated:
Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree, broken flagstone
Flaky
& Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates
CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length
& breadth, in some cases as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high to
very high specific surface values. These surfaces carry a small negative electrical
charge, that will attract the positive end of water molecules. This charge depends on the
soil mineral and may be affected by an electrolite in the pore water. This causes some
additional forces between the soil grains which are proportional to the specific surface.
Thus a lot of water may be held as
| Therefore | Surface force | µ | 1 |
| self weight forces | d | ||
| Also, specific surface = | area | µ | 1 |
| r * volume | d |
Hence, specific surface is a measure of the relative contributions of surface forces and self-weight forces.
The specific surface of a 1mm cube of quartz (r = 2.65gm/cm³) is 0.00023 m²/N
SAND grains (size 2.0 - 0.06mm) are close to cubes or spheres in shape, and have specific surfaces near the minimum value.
CLAY particles are flaky and have much greater specific surface values.
The more elongated or flaky a
particle is the greater will be its specific surface.
Click on the following examples:
cubes, rods, sheets
Examples of mineral grain specific surfaces:
| Mineral/Soil | Grain width d (mm) |
Thickness | Specific Surface m²/N |
|---|---|---|---|
| Quartz grain | 100 | d | 0.0023 |
| Quartz sand | 2.0 - 0.06 | »d | 0.0001 - 0.004 |
| Kaolinite | 2.0 - 0.3 | »0.2d | 2 |
| Illite | 2.0 - 0.2 | »0.1d | 8 |
| Montmorillonite | 1.0 - 0.01 | »0.01d | 80 |
See also clay minerals
Basic characteristics of soils
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content and nature of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these.
The arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is termed its structure or fabric. This includes bedding orientation, stratification, layer thickness, the occurrence of joints and fissures, the occurrence of voids, artefacts, tree roots and nodules, the presence of cementing or bonding agents between grains.
Structural features can have a major influence on in situ properties.
Description and classification
Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced
by man). The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that
formed it:
breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine,
lacustrine or marine.
subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy
surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching,
contamination.
Origins, formation and mineralogy
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust:
igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry
sedimentary rocks
layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of water (seas,
lakes, etc.)
e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate
metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions (e.g.
marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist,
gneiss).
Origins, formation and mineralogy
Physical weathering
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including the
actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and
wearing. The products are mainly coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical
weathering produces Very Coarse soils and Gravels consisting of broken rock particles, but
Sands and Silts will be mainly consists of mineral grains.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by
decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine
soils with separate mineral grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay mineral
depends on the parent rock and on local drainage. Some minerals, such as quartz, are
resistant to the chemical weathering and remain unchanged.
quartz
A resistant and enduring mineral found in many rocks (e.g. granite, sandstone). It is the
principal constituent of sands and silts, and the most abundant soil mineral. It occurs as
equidimensional hard grains.
haematite
A red iron (ferric) oxide: resistant to change, results from extreme weathering. It is
responsible for the widespread red or pink colouration in rocks and soils. It can form a
cement in rocks, or a duricrust in soils in arid climates.
micas
Flaky minerals present in many igneous rocks. Some are resistant, e.g. muscovite; some are
broken down, e.g. biotite.
clay minerals
These result mainly from the breakdown of feldspar minerals. They are very flaky and
therefore have very large surface areas. They are major constituents of clay soils,
although clay soil also contains silt sized particles.
Origins, formation and mineralogy
Clay minerals are produced mainly from the chemical weathering and decomposition of
feldspars, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, and some micas. They are small in 
size and very flaky in shape.
The key to some of the properties of clay soils, e.g. plasticity, compressibility, swelling/shrinkage potential, lies in the structure of clay minerals.
There are three main groups of clay minerals:
kaolinites
(include kaolinite, dickite and nacrite) formed by the decomposition of orthoclase
feldspar (e.g. in granite); kaolin is the principal constituent in china clay and ball
clay.
illites
(include illite and glauconite) are the commonest clay minerals; formed by the
decomposition of some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine clays and shales (e.g.
London clay, Oxford clay).
montmorillonites
(also called smectites or fullers' earth minerals) (include calcium and sodium
momtmorillonites, bentonite and vermiculite) formed by the alteration of basic igneous
rocks containing silicates rich in Ca and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g. Na+, Ca++)
results in high swelling/shrinking potential
For more information on mineralogy see http://mineral.gly.bris.ac.uk/mineralogy/
Origins, formation and mineralogy
The effects of weathering and transportation largely determine the basic nature of the soil (i.e. the size, shape, composition and distribution of the grains). The environment into which deposition takes place, and subsequent geological events that take place there, largely determine the state of the soil, (i.e. density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (i.e. bedding, stratification, occurrence of joints or fissures, tree roots, voids, etc.)
Transportation
Due to combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air:
grains become sub-rounded or rounded, grain sizes are sorted, producing poorly-graded
deposits. In moving ice: grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider,
deposits are well-graded, ranging from rock flour to boulders.
Deposition
In flowing water, larger particles are deposited as velocity drops, e.g. gravels in river
terraces, sands in floodplains and estuaries, silts and clays in lakes and seas. In still
water: horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change with time,
even seasonally or daily.
Origins, formation and mineralogy
The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a soil will have been profoundly influenced by the history of loading and unloading since it was deposited. Changes in drainage conditions may also have occurred which may have brought about changes in water content.
Loading /unloading history
Initial loading
During deposition the load applied to a layer of soil increases as more layers are
deposited over it; thus, it is compressed and water is squeezed out; as deposition
continues, the soil becomes stiffer and stronger.
Unloading
The principal natural mechanism of unloading is erosion of overlying layers. Unloading can
also occur as overlying ice-sheets and glaciers retreat, or due to large excavations made
by man. Soil expands when it is unloaded, but not as much as it was initially
compressed; thus it stays compressed - and is said to be overconsolidated. The degree of
overconsolidation depends on the history of loading and unloading.
Drainage history
Chemical changes
Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water and then inundated with fresh water
develop weak collapsing structure. In arid climates with intermittent rainy periods,
cycles of wetting and drying can bring minerals to the surface to form a cemented soil.
Climate changes
Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to large volume changes due to wetting
and drying; thus, seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing foundation
damage, especially after exceptionally dry summers. Trees extract water from soil in the
process of evapotranspiration; The soil near to trees can therefore either shrink as trees
grow larger, or expand following the removal of large trees.
Description and classification
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification
System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation.
Coarse soils are classified principally on the basis of particle size and grading.
| Very coarse soils |
BOULDERS | > 200 mm | |
| COBBLES | 60 - 200 mm | ||
| Coarse soils |
G GRAVEL |
coarse | 20 - 60 mm |
| medium | 6 - 20 mm | ||
| fine | 2 - 6 mm | ||
| S SAND |
coarse | 0.6 - 2.0 mm | |
| medium | 0.2 - 0.6 mm | ||
| fine | 0.06 - 0.2 mm | ||
The aim
is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in the sample. When a wide range of sizes
is present, the sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out on each
sub-sample. Full details of tests are given in BS 1377: "Methods of test for soil for
civil engineering purposes".
Particle-size tests
Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is carried out by washing
the soil specimen on a 60mm sieve mesh.
Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles > 60 mm. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken through a nest
of sieves of descending size.
Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are allowed to settle
from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at time intervals.
Sizes are determined from the settling velocity and times recorded. Percentages between
sizes are determined from density differences.
Particle-size analysis
The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer (passing) against log size. A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these points is called a grading curve. The position and shape of the grading curve determines the soil class. Geometrical grading characteristics can be determined also from the grading curve.
Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid its identity
and description.
Some typical grading curves are shown in the figure:
A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using geometric properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading characteristics
First of all, three points are located on the grading curve:
d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample
d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample
d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample
From these the grading characteristics are calculated:
Effective size
d10
Uniformity coefficient
Cu = d60 / d10
Coefficient of gradation
Ck = d30² / d60 d10
Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
The results of a dry-sieving test are given below, together with the grading analysis and grading curve. Note carefully how the tabulated results are set out and calculated. The grading curve has been plotted on special semi-logarithmic paper; you can also do this analysis using a spreadsheet.
| Sieve mesh size (mm) |
Mass retained (g) |
Percentage retained |
Percentage finer (passing) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 14.0 | 0 | 0 | 100.0 |
| 10.0 | 3.5 | 1.2 | 98.8 |
| 6.3 | 7.6 | 2.6 | 86.2 |
| 5.0 | 7.0 | 2.4 | 93.8 |
| 3.35 | 14.3 | 4.9 | 88.9 |
| 2.0 | 21.1 | 7.2 | 81.7 |
| 1.18 | 56.7 | 19.4 | 62.3 |
| 0.600 | 73.4 | 25.1 | 37.2 |
| 0.425 | 22.2 | 7.6 | 29.6 |
| 0.300 | 26.9 | 9.2 | 20.4 |
| 0.212 | 18.4 | 6.3 | 14.1 |
| 0.150 | 15.2 | 5.2 | 8.9 |
| 0.063 | 17.5 | 6.0 | 2.9 |
| Pan | 8.5 | 2.9 | |
| TOTAL | 292.3 | 100.0 |
The soil comprises: 18% gravel, 45% coarse sand, 24% medium sand, 10% fine sand, 3%
silt, and is classified therefore as: a well-graded gravelly SAND
In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the
particles rather than their size that has the greater influence on engineering properties.
Clay soils have flaky particles to which water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.
Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can range from (dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at which the consistency changes from one state to the next are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).
Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:
Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid
Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to
plastic
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests.
The consistency of most soils in the ground will be plastic or semi-solid. Soil strength and stiffness behaviour are related to the range of plastic consistency. The range of water content over which a soil has a plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity Index (IP or PI).
| IP | = liquid limit - plastic limit |
| = wL - wP |
In theBSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their measured plasticity index and liquid limit values: CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and five divisions of plasticity are defined:
| Low plasticity | wL = < 35% |
| Intermediate plasticity | wL = 35 - 50% |
| High plasticity | wL = 50 - 70% |
| Very high plasticity | wL = 70 - 90% |
| Extremely high plasticity | wL = > 90% |
A
plasticity chart is provided to aid classification.
So-called 'clay' soils are not 100% clay. The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 mm size) in a fine soil affects its current state, particularly its tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water content. The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is called the activity of the soil.
Activity = IP / (% clay particles)
Some typical values are:
| Mineral | Activity | Soil | Activity |
| Muscovite | 0.25 | Kaolin clay | 0.4-0.5 |
| Kaolinite | 0.40 | Glacial clay and loess | 0.5-0.75 |
| Illite | 0.90 | Most British clays | 0.75-1.25 |
| Montmorillonite | > 1.25 | Organic estuarine clay | > 1.25 |
Specific gravity (Gs) is a property of the mineral or rock material forming
soil grains.
It is defined as
Method of measurement
For fine soils a 50 ml density bottle may be used; for coarse soils a 500 ml or 1000 ml
jar. The jar is weighed empty (M1). A quantity of dry soil is placed in the jar
and the jar weighed (M2). The jar is filled with water, air removed by
stirring, and weighed again (M3). The jar is emptied, cleaned and refilled with
water - and weighed again (M4).
[The range of Gs for common soils is 2.64 to 2.72]
Description and classification
The volume-weight properties of a soil define its state. Measures of the amount of void space, amount of water and the weight of a unit volume of soil are required in engineering analysis and design.
Soil comprises three constituent phases:
Solid: rock fragments, mineral grains or flakes, organic matter.
Liquid: water, with some dissolved compounds (e.g. salts).
Gas: air or water vapour.
In natural soils the three phases are intermixed. To aid analysis it is convenient to
consider a soil model in which the three phases are seen as separate, but still in
their correct proportions.
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components:
Total volume,
V = Vs + Vw + Va
Since the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids present is taken as the reference quantity. Thus, the following relational volumetric quantities may be defined:
Note also that:
n = e / (1 + e)
e = n / (1 - n)
v = 1 / (1 - n)
Typical void ratios might be 0.3 (e.g. for a dense, well graded granular soil) or 1.5
(e.g. for a soft clay).
Volumes of solid, water and air: the soil model
The volume of water in a soil can only vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids; this can be expressed as a ratio:
For a perfectly dry soil:
Sr = 0
For a saturated soil:
Sr = 1
Note: In clay soils as the amount water increases the volume and therefore the
volume of voids will also increase, and so the degree of saturation may remain at Sr
= 1 while the actual volume of water is increasing.
Volumes of solid, water and air: the soil model
The air-voids volume, Va , is that part of the void space not occupied by water.
Va = Vv - Vw
= e - e.Sr
= e.(1 - Sr)
Air-voids content, Av
Av = (air-voids volume) / (total volume)
= Va / V
= e.(1 - Sr) / (1+e)
= n.(1 - Sr)
For a perfectly dry soil:
Av = n
For a saturated soil:
Av = 0
The mass of air may be ignored. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle density or grain specific gravity.
Grain specific gravity
Hence the mass of solid particles in a soil
Ms = Vs .Gs .rw
(rw = density of water = 1.00Mg/m³)
[Range of Gs for common soils: 2.64-2.72]
Particle density
rs = mass per unit volume of particles
= Gs .rw
The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water content, or sometimes the moisture content.
From the soil model it can be seen that
w = (Sr .e .rw) / (Gs .rw)
Giving the useful relationship:
w .Gs = Sr .e
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of
material.
Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material.
There are two basic measures of density or unit weight applied to soils: Dry density is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume. Bulk density is a measure of the amount of solid + water per unit volume.
The preferred units of density are:
Mg/m³, kg/m³ or g/ml.
The corresponding unit weights are:
Also, it can be shown that
r = rd(1 + w) and
g = gd(1 + w)
It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately it is received in the testing laboratory and just prior to commencing other tests (e.g. shear tests, compression tests, etc.).
The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since these could change during transportation and storage.
Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of
others; e.g. void ratio from porosity, dry unit weight from unit weight & water
content.
The most usual method of determining the water content of soil is to weigh a small representative specimen, drying it to constant weight and then weighing it again. Drying can be carried out using an electric oven set at 104-105° Celsius or using a microwave oven.
Example: A sample of soil was placed in a tin container and weighed, after which it was dried in an oven and then weighed again. Calculate the water content of the soil.
| Weight of tin empty | = 16.16 g |
| Weight of tin + moist soil | = 37.82 g |
| Weight of tin + dry soil | = 34.68 g |
| Water content, w | = (mass of water) / (mass of dry soil) |
| = (37.82 - 34.68) / (34.68 - 16.16) | |
| = 0.169 | |
| Percentage water content | = 16.9% |
Clay soils: Specimens are usually prepared in the form of regular geometric shapes,
(e.g. prisms, cylinders) of which the volume is easily computed.
Sands and gravels: Specimens have to be placed in a container to determine volume
(e.g. a cylindrical can).
Example
A soil specimen had a volume of 89.13 ml, a mass before drying of 174.45 g and after
drying of 158.73 g; the water content was 9.9%. Determine the bulk and dry densities and
unit weights.
| Bulk density | |
| r | = (mass of specimen) / (volume of specimen) |
| = 174.45 / 89.13 g/ml | |
| = 1.957Mg/m³ | |
| [1g/ml = 1Mg/m³] | |
| Unit weight | |
| g | = 9.81m/s² x rMg/m³ |
| = 19.20 kN/m³ | |
| Dry density | |
| rd | = (mass after drying) / (volume) |
| = 158.73 / 89.13 | |
| = 1.781 Mg/m³ | |
| rd | = r / (1 + w) |
| = 1.957 / (1+0.099) | |
| = 1.781 Mg/m³ | |
| Dry unit weight | |
| gd | = g / (1 + w) |
| = 19.20 / (1+0.099) | |
| = 17.47 kN/m³ | |
Measurements taken in the field are mostly to determine density/unit weight. The most common application is the determination of the density of rolled and compacted fill, e.g. in road bases, embankments, etc.
 The
core cutter method A steel cylinder is driven into the ground, dug out and the soil struck off level. The mass of soil is found by weighing and deducting the mass of the cylinder. Small samples are taken from both ends and the water content determined. |
The sand-pouring cylinder method
Using a
special tray with a hole in the centre, a hole is formed in the soil and the mass of soil
removed is weighed.
Using the sand-pouring cylinder, the hole is filled with a clean dry running sand, of which the loose density is known; thus, the volume of the hole is found.
Bulk density
r = (mass of soil) / (volume of core cutter or hole)
Description and classification
The state of soil is essentially the closeness of packing of the grains in the range:
| Closely packed | ® | Loosely packed |
| Dense | ® | Loose |
| Low water content | ® | High water content |
| Strong and stiff | ® | Weak and soft |
The important indicators of the current state of a soil are:
current stresses: vertical and horizontal effective stresses
current water content: effecting strength and stiffness in fine soils
liquidity index: indicates state in fine soils
density index: indicates state of compaction in coarse soils
history of loading and unloading: degree of overconsolidation
Engineering operations (e.g. excavation, loading, unloading, compaction, etc.) on soil
bring about changes in its state. Its initial state is the result of processes of erosion
and deposition. It is possible for the engineer to predict changes that could result from
a proposed engineering operation: changes from the soil's current state to a new
future state.
Original deposition
Most soils are formed in layers or lenses by deposition from moving water, ice or wind.
One-dimensional compression occurs as overlying layers are added. Vertical and horizontal stresses increase with deposition.
Erosion
Erosion causes unloading; stresses decrease; some vertical expansion occurs.
Plastic strain has occurred; the soil remains compressed, i.e. overconsolidated.
Subsequent changes
Subsequent changes may occur in the depositional environment: further loading/unloading
due to glaciation, land movement, engineering; and ageing processes.
The term ageing includes processes that occur with time, except loading and unloading. Ageing processes are independent of changes in loading.
Vibration and compaction
Coarse soils can be made more dense by vibration or compaction at essentially constant
effective stress
Creep
Fine soils creep and continue to compress and distort at constant effective stress after
primary consolidation is complete.
Cementing and bonding
Intergranular cementing and bonding occurs due to deposition of minerals from groundwater,
e.g. calcium carbonate; disturbance due to excavation fractures the bonding and reduces
strength.
Weathering
Physical and chemical changes take place in soils near the ground surface due to the
influence of changes in rainfall and temperature.
Changes in salinity
Changes in the salinity of groundwater are due to changes in relative sea and land levels,
thus soil originally deposited in sea water may later have fresh water in its pores, such
soils may be prone to sudden collapse.
The void ratio of coarse soils (sands and gravels) varies with the state of packing between the loosest practical state in which it can exist and the densest. Some engineering properties are affected by this, e.g.shear strength, compressibility, permeability.
It is therefore useful to measure the in situ state and this can be done by comparing the in situ void ratio (e) with the minimum and maximum practical values (emin and emax) to give a density index ID
emin is determined with soil compacted densely in a metal mould
emax is determined with soil poured loosely into a metal mould
Density index is also known as relative density
Relative states of compaction are defined:
| Density index | State of compaction |
| 0-15% | Very loose |
| 15-35 | Loose |
| 35-65 | Medium |
| 65-85 | Dense |
| 85-100% | Very dense |
In fine soils, especially clays, the current state is dependent on the water content with respect to the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index (IL or LI) provides a quantitative measure of the current state:
where
wP = plastic limit and
wL = liquid limit
Significant values of IL indicating the consistency of the soil are:
IL < 0 Þ semi-plastic solid or solid
0 < IL < 1 Þ plastic
1 < IL Þ liquid
Preliminary estimates of strength and stiffness can provide a useful basis for early design and feasibility studies, and also the planning of more detailed testing programmes. The following suggestions have been made; they are simple, but not necessarily reliable, and should be not be used in final design calculations.
su = 170 exp(-4.6 IL) kN/m²
[Schofield and Wroth (1968)]
su = (0.11 + 0.37 IP) s'vo
kN/m²
where s'vo = vertical effective stress in situ
[Skempton and Bjerrum (1957)]
Stiffness
The slope of the critical state line may be
estimated from:
l = IP .Gs /
461
[After Skempton and Northey (1953)]
The compressibility index
may be estimated from:
Cc = l ln10 = IP
Gs / 200
(where IP is in percentage units)
Description and classification
BS 5930 Site Investigation recommends the terminology and a system for describing and
classifying soils for engineering purposes. Without the use of a satisfactory system of
description and classification, the description of materials found on a site would be
meaningless or even misleading, and it would be difficult to apply experience to future
projects.
BS system for description and classification
A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses ninecharacteristics; these should be written in the following order:
compactness
e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented
bedding structure
e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation
discontinuities
spacing of beds, joints, fissures
weathered state
degree of weathering
colour
main body colour, mottling
grading or consistency
e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard
SOIL NAME
e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, with-fines,
etc. as appropriate
soil class
(BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand
geological stratigraphic name
(when known) e.g. London clay
Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case.
Example:
(i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain alluvium
(ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.
BS system for description and classification
A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field indentification and description system. The following are some of the terms listed for use in soil descriptions:
Particle shape
angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate
Compactness
loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index )
Bedding structure
homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified
Bedding spacing
massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly bedded
(200-60 mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly laminated (<6
mm).
Discontinuities
i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600
mm), medium spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely spaced (60-20
mm), extremely closely spaced (<20 mm).
Colours
red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black
Consistency
very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure
required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by
sharp object), hard (difficult to indent).
Grading
well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded (narrow or
uneven size range).
Composite soils
In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%), very
clayey or silty(>15%)
In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%)
BS system for description and classification
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its essential structure is as follows:
| Soil group | Symbol | Recommended name | ||
| Coarse soils | Fines % | |||
| GRAVEL | G | GW | 0 - 5 | Well-graded GRAVEL |
| GPu/GPg | 0 - 5 | Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL | ||
| G-F | GWM/GWC | 5 - 15 | Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL | |
| GPM/GPC | 5 - 15 | Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL | ||
| GF | GML, GMI... | 15 - 35 | Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-group...] | |
| GCL, GCI... | 15 - 35 | Very clayey GRAVEL [..symbols as below] | ||
| SAND | S | SW | 0 - 5 | Well-graded SAND |
| SPu/SPg | 0 - 5 | Uniform/poorly-graded SAND | ||
| S-F | SWM/SWC | 5 - 15 | Well-graded silty/clayey SAND | |
| GPM/GPC | 5 - 15 | Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND | ||
| SF | SML, SMI... | 15 - 35 | Very silty SAND [plasticity sub-group...] | |
| SCL, SCI... | 15 - 35 | Very clayey SAND [..symbols as below] | ||
| Fine soils | >35% fines | Liquid limit% | ||
| SILT | M | MG | Gravelly SILT | |
| MS | Sandy SILT | |||
| ML, MI... | [Plasticity subdivisions as for CLAY] | |||
| CLAY | C | CG | Gravelly CLAY | |
| CS | Sandy CLAY | |||
| CL | <35 | CLAY of low plasticity | ||
| CI | 35 - 50 | CLAY of intermediate plasticity | ||
| CH | 50 - 70 | CLAY of high plasticity | ||
| CV | 70 - 90 | CLAY of very high plasticity | ||
| CE | >90 | CLAY of extremely high plasticity | ||
| Organic soils | O | [Add letter 'O' to group symbol] | ||
| Peat | Pt | [Soil predominantly fibrous and organic] |
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The Unified Classification System has been in use since 1942. Casagrande originally developed the system for the construction of airfields. According to the System, soils are classified into 15 main groups. Each group is identified by means of a group symbol. A group symbol consists of a primary letter (prefix) and a secondary letter (suffix). The prefix identifies the main soil type, while the suffix indicates the subdivision within each group.
Soil Types Organic Silt or Clay Subgroup Poorly graded, with non-plastic fines 1. A
well-graded gravel is GW. |
Prefix
(Primary Letter O Suffix (Secondary Letter) |
AASHTHO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
History: Terzaghi and Hogentogler developed this, the oldest soil classification system, which is still in use, for the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads in 1928. The classification was revised, modified and adopted by the American Association of State Highway Officials (A.A.S.H.O.). The classification is now known as AASTHO system (AASTHO MethodM145, ASTM Designation D3282-73).
Set-up: In the AASTHO soil classification system, soils are divided into eight groups. They are A-1, A-2, A-3, and so forth. The first three groups (A-1, A-2, and A-3) are the coarse-grained soils, such as gravel, sand and sand-gravel mixture. The next two groups (A-4 and A-5) are silty soils. The next two groups (A-6 and A-7) are clayey soils. The last group, A-8, is peat soils. In addition to the group classification, soils are further sub-divided into sub-groups within a group.
Indications: The group designations are basically numerical
indicators of the quality of soils from an engineering standpoint. Generally, the lower the number, the better is the
soil for engineering uses. Soils are poorer
for use in road construction as one moves from left to right in the chart, A-6 soil is
less satisfactory than A-5 soil. Soils are
poorer for road construction as the group index increases for a particular sub-group, i.e.
and A-6 (3) soil is less satisfactory than an A-6 (1) soil.
Criteria: The AASTHO classification system uses:
1. The mechanical analysis,
2. The liquid limit, and
3. The plasticity index to classify soils.